Research Article - (2022)
A Method for the Definition of Immunological Non-Response to Antiretroviral Therapy Based on Review Analysis and Supervised
Classification Model
Yong Shuai1,2*,
Hemeng Peng1,4,
Xiaodong Wang1,3 and
Xiaoqing Peng1,3
*Correspondence:
Yong Shuai, Chongqing CEPREI Industrial Technology Research Institute Co., Ltd, Chongqing, 401332,
China,
Tel: +086 156 8362 2221,
Email:
Author info »
Abstract
Background: Immunological Non-Response (INR) accelerated the progression of AIDS disease and brought serious difficulties to the treatment of HIV-1 infected people. The current definition of INR lacked a credible consensus, which affected the diagnosis, treatment and scientific research of INR.
Methods: We systematically analyzed the open source INR related references, used visualization techniques and machine learning classification models to propose the features, models and criteria that define INR.
Results: We summarized some consensus on the definition of INR. Among the features that defined INR, CD4+ T-cell absolute number and ART time were the best feature to define INR. The supervised learning classification model had high accuracy in defining INR, and the Support Vector Machine (SVM) had the highest accuracy in the commonly used supervised classification learning model. Based on supervised learning model and visualization technology, we proposed some criteria that could help to reach a consensus on INR definition.
Conclusion: This study provided consensus, features, model and criteria for defining INR.
Keywords
Immunological non-response; Definition; Review analysis; Visualization; Supervised learning
classification model
Introduction
After Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) entered the human body, it would cause the reduction of CD4+ T lymphocytes (abbreviated as CD4+ T-cell), the gradual exhaustion of CD4+ T-cell,and the destruction of the physical immune function. After effective
combined Antiretroviral Therapy (cART), most People Living with
HIV (PLWH) will be able to achieve virological suppression, and
the CD4+ T-cell count will increase significantly, and the body's
immunity function will gradually recover.
However, there was still about 9%-45% of People Living with
HIV (PLWH) whose CD4+ T-cell count level had not recovered
although they had reached the standard of virological suppression,
and immunological non-response has occurred. These PLWH were
calling PLWH with poor immune reconstitution or Immunological
Non-Responders (INRs) [1]. Corresponding to them were Immunological Responders (IRs), these patients achieved both
virological suppression and CD4+ T-cell count return to normal
value. Since INR would increase the morbidity and mortality of
AIDS-Defining diseases (AD) and Non-AIDS-Defined diseases
(NAD), research on INR had become the focus of current HIVrelated
research, and the relevant contents included the definition,
mechanism and treatment plans of INR [2-6].
Because researchers had different understandings to INR, there was
no consensus on the definition of INR. The features that defined
INR included the CD4+ T-cell count absolute number, CD4+ T-cell
count increase, CD4+ T-cell count growth rate, CD4/CD8 ratio,
time to receive effective cART, Virologic Suppression (VS) time.
Each standard had a significant interval. For example, the CD4+ T-cell count absolute number included 200, 250, 300, 500, and
ART time included 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, 5 years, 10 years, etc.
At the same time, some references still have undefined intervals for the definition of INR. For example, the reference [7] defined INR
with the standard of cd4 count absolute number <200 and IR with
the standard of CD4+ T-cell count absolute number >500, but there
was no definition for the patients with the CD4+ T-cell absolute
number in the interval of (200,500).
The lack of a consensus standard for the definition of INR will
adversely affect the advancement of scientific research and clinical
diagnosis. In terms of scientific research, due to the different
definitions of INR, it was difficult to understand and compare
similar research results, which affected the credibility and reliability
of these research results. In terms of clinical diagnosis, most doctors
would judge whether a patient was INRs based on guidelines [8]
and understanding of INR by using similar indicators or adjacent
time. For example, when a patient came to see a doctor on the
13th month and 12 days after receiving ART, the CD4+ T-cell count
absolute number and the conversion rate at the 12th month in the
guideline were generally used to determine whether the patient was
INRs. This clinical judgment method for non-standard time was not
accurate enough, and it may lead to misdiagnosis or overtreatment.
In order to solve the above problems, through systematic analysis of
INR related references and visualization techniques, we found the
best features to define INR firstly. Then we trained the supervised
learning classification models and obtained the optimal supervised
learning classification model. Finally we proposed some INR
definition criteria for references based on the best supervised
learning classification model, so as to assist doctors and researchers
to carry out diagnosis, treatment and research work.
Methodology
Study design
Data source and definition:
References data: References data was obtained through the websites
of https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ and https://www.cnki.net/.
The searching keywords were from Table 1 of the references [2].
The search language of https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov was
English, and the search languages of https://www.cnki.net/ were
Chinese and English.
|
Number (%) of patients |
|
INRs |
IRs |
Total |
p |
(n=459) |
(n=192) |
(N=651) |
Age (years) |
0.808 |
Mean |
50.27 |
50.57 |
50.36 |
|
Median (range) |
51.0(39-60.6) |
51(37-64) |
51(38-62) |
|
Sex, n (%) |
<0.001 |
Male |
368(80.17%) |
159(82.81%) |
527(80.95%) |
|
Female |
91(19.83%) |
33(17.19%) |
124(19.05%) |
|
Last CD4+T cell absolute number(cells/uL) |
0.435 |
Mean |
275.61 |
566.17 |
361.31 |
|
Median (range) |
273(189.5-362) |
564(427-660.5) |
329(229-462.5) |
|
ART time(months) |
<0.001 |
Mean |
48.61 |
38.48 |
45.62 |
|
Median (range) |
46.9(24.85-71.25) |
29.35(16.3-61) |
41.9(21.45-69.55) |
|
Table 1: Basic information of the data set.
Training data of the classification model: Among all the INR
definition related references [1-3,6,7,9-136] retrieved in this paper,
only the reference [59] provided the original INR open sourced
data. The reasons why the original data sources of other references
cannot be obtained included: The data sources website cannot be
opened, the corresponding author needed to be contacted, or only
the data after statistical analysis was provided. In order to ensure
the credibility of the supervised learning classification modeling
results, we used some related data from the electronic medical
record database of Chongqing Public Health Medical Center for
analysis.
Definition of INR and IR in the data source: For open source data
of reference [59], we used the original data. For the data in the
electronic medical record database, we assumed that INRs were
defined as patients who have adopted INR interventions methods
(including the use of Thymalfasin, Thymopentin, Recombinant
Human Growth Hormone, Aikeqing Capsule, Peiyuan Capsule,
Tang Herb Tablets, Mushroom Polysaccharides, etc.) [5] or were
recorded as INR in the cases, and other PLWH were defined as
IRs. Both the INRs and IRs reached the standard of virological
suppression. We combined the open source data and the data from
electronic medical record database into one data set. The basic
information of the data set was shown in Table 1.
First of all, through references analysis, we found the associated
features of the INR definition, and visualized the relationship
between these features and INR. Secondly we proposed hypotheses,
used the supervised learning model to classify INR and IR, and
used cross-validation and grid search in the supervised learning
modeling process to prevent overfitting and obtain the best INR
evaluation model and its corresponding parameters. Finally, we
proposed some criteria on the definition of INR based on the best
supervised learning model. The flowchart of this paper was shown
in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Flowchart of this paper.
In order to facilitate other researchers to rebuild the models in this
paper and carry out more in-depth researches, we open source the
entire modeling process and source code in the paper. The source
code was available in the supplement.
Results
Features Analysis of related to the definition of INR
The references used in the papers were all derived from the
published literature related to INR. We used the method of
literature [2] to systematically analyze the references and sorted out
the definition standards of each paper for INR. Through literature
analysis, we summarized the following consensus regarding the
definition of INR:
1. The HIV-1 antibody test of the patient was positive
2. The patient has received ART for more than 6 months
3. The patient has achieved virologic suppression or reached the
virologic suppression standard in the patient's area
4. The CD4+ T-cell absolute number of the patient failed to return
to normal level
At the same time, we sorted out the features related to the definition
of INR, and its visualization map was shown in Figure 2. It can
be seen from this figure that the features related to the definition
of INR included CD4+ T-cell count absolute number, CD4+ T-cell
count change number, CD4+ T-cell count growth rate, CD4/CD8
ratio, ART time and Virologic Suppression(VS) time.
Figure 2: Visualization map of the features related to INR definition.
Features selection
We summarized the six features found in the previous section into
two categories, which were called the medical test features(including
CD4+ T-cell count absolute number, CD4+ T-cell count change
number, CD4+ T-cell count growth rate and CD4/CD8 ratio) and
the time features(including ART time and VS time). The usage
frequency of each feature to define INR was shown in Table 2.
Feature |
Number of references |
Number(n) |
Percentage(100%) |
133 |
100 |
Medical test feature |
CD4+ T-cell count absolute number |
115 |
86.47 |
CD4+ T-cell count change number |
25 |
18.8 |
CD4+ T-cell count growth rate |
13 |
9.77 |
CD4/CD8 ratio |
4 |
3.01 |
Time feature |
ART time |
102 |
76.69 |
VS time |
51 |
38.35 |
Note: There were some combined indicators for the medical test features and time features in some references, such as reference[125] defined INR by the medical test values standard of the CD4+ T-cell count absolute number<200 and the CD4+ T-cell count change number <100, while reference [109] defined INR by the time values standard of ART time> 12 and VS time > 6. We separately counted the combination indicators.
Table 2: INR definition related features and the usage frequency of these features.
It can be seen from Table 1 that the CD4+ T-cell count absolute
number in the medical test features was used the most times, and
the ART time in the time features was used the most times.
By comparing all the medical test features, we can find that the
CD4+ T-cell count absolute number can be obtained every time
when a patient went to the hospital. This feature did not need
to compare with the previous test values (including the absolute
value of the baseline CD4+ T-cell count), but the CD4+ T-cell count
change number and the CD4+ T-cell count growth rate needed
comparison values. Compared with CD4/CD8, the CD4+ T-cell
count absolute number used to define INR had been recognized by
more scholars. Therefore, the CD4+ T-cell count absolute number
was the optimal feature in medical test features for defining INR.
By comparing the time features, we found that the ART time can
be calculated from the time when the patient received ART, which
was easy to calculate, and the calculation standard was uniform.
The acquisition of the VS time required the detection of the viral
load of HIV RNA. However, the current standards for virologic
suppression were not uniform, as shown in Table 3. The acquisition
of VS time required the patient to go to the hospital to check again
after receiving ART. When the patient achieves VS standard after
receiving ART treatment without checking, this time cannot be
accurately obtained. Therefore, ART time was the optimal feature
in medical time features for defining INR.
No |
HIV-1 RNA viral load (copies/ml) |
References number |
Sum |
1 |
20 |
13,20,50,88 |
4 |
2 |
40 |
37, 83,93,106 |
4 |
3 |
40 to 75 |
102 |
1 |
4 |
48 |
100 |
1 |
5 |
50 |
7,15,19,21,22,31,34,36,39,43-45,48,49,52-55,61,69,74,77,92,95,97,98,103,105,108,130,134,136 |
32 |
6 |
75 |
29 |
1 |
7 |
200 |
94 |
1 |
8 |
400 |
14,63,135 |
3 |
9 |
500 |
136 |
1 |
10 |
1000 |
24,60 |
2 |
Table 3: VS Standards of HIV-1 RNA Viral load.
Based on the above analysis, we chosen both the CD4+ T-cell
count absolute number and ART time as the features to define
INR. By selecting the references that only used the CD4+ T-cell
count absolute number and the ART time, we hoped to discover
the relationship among the definitions of INR and Immunological
Response (IR) through visualization techniques. The definition
and relationship of INR and IR were shown in Table 4 and Figure 3.
Figure 3: Relationship between INR and IR displayed by CD4+ T-cell count absolute number and ART time from References.
Note: In Figure 3, blue was used to indicate the repetitive points that occur when CD4+ T-cell count absolute number and ART time were used to define
INR and IR at the same values. The larger the area of the point in the figure, the more references that used the definition.
No |
Definition of INR |
Definition of IR |
Number of overlaps |
CD4+ T-cell count absolute number |
ART time |
Sum |
References number |
CD4+ T-cell count absolute number |
ART time |
Sum |
References number |
1 |
200 |
6 |
2 |
16,61 |
200 |
6 |
1 |
61 |
3 |
2 |
200 |
12 |
4 |
6,17,64,135 |
250 |
12 |
2 |
14,64 |
6 |
3 |
200 |
24 |
10 |
7,13,15,18-21,68,70,88 |
|
|
|
|
|
4 |
200 |
48 |
1 |
11 |
|
|
|
|
|
5 |
200 |
60 |
1 |
67 |
|
|
|
|
|
6 |
250 |
12 |
2 |
14,22 |
|
|
|
|
|
7 |
250 |
24 |
7 |
23-27,35,86 |
250 |
24 |
5 |
24,25,26,27,35 |
12 |
8 |
250 |
36 |
1 |
28 |
250 |
36 |
1 |
28 |
|
9 |
350 |
6 |
1 |
29 |
|
|
|
|
|
10 |
350 |
9 |
2 |
30,31 |
|
|
|
|
|
11 |
350 |
12 |
8 |
12,32-34,62,81,87,109 |
350 |
12 |
2 |
17,32 |
10 |
12 |
350 |
24 |
16 |
1,9,36-46,51,59,69 |
350 |
24 |
6 |
9,36,37,51,59,69 |
22 |
13 |
350 |
48 |
2 |
47,60 |
350 |
48 |
2 |
11,47 |
4 |
14 |
350 |
120 |
1 |
48 |
350 |
120 |
1 |
48 |
2 |
15 |
400 |
12 |
1 |
49 |
400 |
12 |
1 |
33 |
2 |
16 |
400 |
24 |
1 |
50 |
400 |
24 |
1 |
39 |
2 |
17 |
490 |
12 |
1 |
55 |
490 |
12 |
1 |
55 |
2 |
18 |
500 |
12 |
3 |
52,53,65 |
500 |
12 |
4 |
6,22,62,135 |
7 |
19 |
500 |
48 |
3 |
10,73,80 |
500 |
48 |
2 |
73,80 |
5 |
20 |
500 |
60 |
1 |
54 |
500 |
60 |
2 |
54,67 |
3 |
|
|
|
|
|
500 |
24 |
11 |
7,15,18,19,20,38,41,42,43,44,45 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
600 |
24 |
1 |
50 |
|
Table 4: Relationship to define INR and IR from references by CD4+ T-cell count absolute number and the ART time.
From Figure 3, we can find that with regard to the definition of INR
and IR, because different references had different understanding
of INR, there was a phenomenon of data overlap. For example,
when ART time=24, the overlapping of CD4+ T-cell count absolute
number included 250,350 and 400.
In order to show the relationship more clearly, we processed the
definition of INR and IR in the references in the following way:
1. Deleted all symbols in the definition, including >, ≥, <, ≤.
2. For the definition of INR, if the same ART time corresponded
to multiple CD4+ T-cell count absolute number, the lowest
value was used.
3. For the definition of IR, if the same ART time corresponded
to multiple CD4+ T-cell count absolute number, the highest
value was used.
4. For data in a defined range, the minimum value of the range
was taken. For example, if the art time range was 6-12 months,
then the art time was taken as 6 months.
5. When the CD4+ T-cell count absolute number of INR and
IR were at the same ART time, since the value of INR usually
contained < or ≤, and the value of IR usually contained > or
≥, in order to show the difference between INR and IR, when
displaying the CD4+ T-cell count absolute number, we set the
CD4+ T-cell count absolute number of INR to -20, and the
CD4+ T-cell count absolute number of IR to +20.
6. If the CD4+ T-cell count absolute number corresponding to a
certain ART time was less than the value at the previous time
point but greater than the value at the next time point, this
point would be deleted.
Based on the above processing method, the relationship of INR
and IR displayed by CD4+ T-cell count absolute number and ART
time obtained from references was shown in Figure 4. From Figure
4, We found that between the two types of INR and IR, a line
drawn by the CD4+ T-cell count absolute number and ART time
may distinguish between INR and IR. This line may be a straight
line (the red line in Figure 4) or a curved line (the black line in Figure 4).
Figure 4: Relationship between INR and IR displayed by CD4+ T-cell count absolute number and ART time.
Classification result
Following the research in the previous section, we converted
the distinction between INR and IR into a supervised binary
classification problem. In order to facilitate the calculation of the
model, we proposed the following assumptions:
1. There was a certain mathematical relationship between CD4+ T-cell count absolute number and ART time. The model
established by this mathematical relationship can be used to
classify INR and IR.
2. Every doctor was scientific and credible for the diagnosis and
medication of INR.
3. Considering the serious harm of INR to the patient’s physical
condition, our definition of INR referred to the pessimistic
principle in management [137]. When a patient receives INR intervention treatment, but their CD4+ T-cell count was within the normal range, we still define it as INR.
Based on the above assumptions, we used the typical supervised
learning classification algorithm in machine learning to obtain a
model that can accurately determine INR through training. We
used the currently popular machine learning classification models
for modeling, including K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Least Absolute
Shrinkage and Selection Operator (Lasso), Ridge Regression,
Support Vector Machine(SVM), Decision Tree(DT), Gradient
Boosting Classifier(GBC), Logistic Regression(LR) and Multilayer
Perceptron(MLP). We used Cross-validation score (cross_val_score)
to determine the optimal classification model.
In order to avoid over-fitting and obtain the optimal classification
model, we adopted the shuffle-split cross-validation method, which
independently controlled the number of iterations in addition to
the size of the training set and the test set. The proportions of the
training set and the validation set were defined as 50% and 30%
respectively to ensure that a part of the data did not participate in
the training in each training time. The detailed modeling process
was shown in Part 2 of the supplement. Through modeling analysis,
the cross_val_score of each model and its corresponding optimal
parameters were shown in Table 5.
No |
Model name |
Optimal hyperparameters |
Cross_val_score |
1 |
KNN |
'algorithm': 'ball_tree', 'leaf_size': 10, 'n_neighbors': 2, 'metric': 'chebyshev', 'weights': 'distance' |
0.9855 |
2 |
Lasso |
'alpha': 0.001, 'selection': 'cyclic', 'max_iter': 10000, 'tol': 0.0001 |
0.5949 |
3 |
Ridge |
'alpha': 0.001, 'solver': 'cholesky', 'max_iter': 1000, 'tol': 1e-06 |
0.5986 |
4 |
SVM |
'kernel': 'rbf', 'gamma': 10, 'C': 100, 'max_iter': 10000, 'tol': 0.0001 |
0.9911 |
5 |
DT |
'criterion': 'entropy', 'splitter': 'best', 'max_depth': 5, 'min_samples_leaf': 5 |
0.9461 |
6 |
GBC |
'learning_rate': 0.001, 'n_estimators': 90, 'max_depth': 5, 'min_samples_split': 800, 'min_samples_leaf': 60 |
0.7118 |
7 |
LR |
'solver': 'liblinear', 'penalty': 'l1', 'C': 10, 'max_iter': 1000, 'tol': 0.01 |
0.9669 |
8 |
MLP |
'hidden_layer_sizes': [20, 20], 'activation': 'identity', 'solver': 'lbfgs', 'alpha': 0.01, 'learning_rate': 'constant', 'max_iter': 10000, 'tol': 0.001 |
0.9675 |
Table 5: Cross-validation score of the supervised learning model and the corresponding optimal hyper parameters.
It can be seen from Table 5 that SVM had the best Crossvalidation
score. We can use the SVM model with the optimal
hyper parameters to define INR. The result of using SVM for
classification was shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Result by using SVM to classify INR and IR.
Discussion
Reliability analysis of results and recommended INR
definition interval
Due to the influence of the data amount and outliers on the
credibility of the model, the results of the training model in this
paper were only valid for the current data. For example, in open
source data of reference [59], patients with CD4+ T-cell absolute
number=600 and ART time=106.8 were defined as INRs.
Normally, no matter what value of the ART time, patients with
CD4+ T-cell absolute number=600 should be regarded as the IRs,
but the author of this paper defined him as INRs. These data may
affect the credibility of the model.
At the same time, although the SVM model can assist in the
definition of INR, because this was a supervised learning model,
it was not convenient for clinicians to quickly determine whether
the patient was INRs or IRs. We also tried semi-supervised
learning algorithms and unsupervised learning algorithm, but
their classification accuracy and the interpretability were not as
good as supervised learning algorithms. The programming codes
of semi-supervised learning algorithm and unsupervised learning
algorithm was included in Part 3 and Part 4 of the appendix.
In order to facilitate scientific researchers and clinicians to quickly
and accurately defined the INR, through the supervised learning
classification model, we gave the recommended reference values of
the CD4+ T-cell absolute number in each time period of the ART,
as shown in Table 6. Based on our judgment, if the CD4+ T-cell
absolute number of a patient at a specific ART time was less than
the corresponding value in the table, it was considered that the
patient has a high probability of belonging to INRs.
ART time |
CD4 |
ART time |
CD4 |
ART time |
CD4 |
ART time |
CD4 |
ART time |
CD4 |
6 |
199 |
17 |
338 |
28 |
404 |
39 |
448 |
50 |
482 |
7 |
219 |
18 |
345 |
29 |
409 |
40 |
452 |
51 |
484 |
8 |
237 |
19 |
353 |
30 |
413 |
41 |
455 |
52 |
487 |
9 |
253 |
20 |
359 |
31 |
418 |
42 |
458 |
53 |
489 |
10 |
267 |
21 |
366 |
32 |
422 |
43 |
461 |
54 |
492 |
11 |
280 |
22 |
372 |
33 |
426 |
44 |
465 |
55 |
494 |
12 |
291 |
23 |
378 |
34 |
430 |
45 |
468 |
56 |
497 |
13 |
302 |
24 |
384 |
35 |
434 |
46 |
470 |
57 |
499 |
14 |
312 |
25 |
389 |
36 |
438 |
47 |
473 |
58 |
501 |
15 |
321 |
26 |
394 |
37 |
441 |
48 |
476 |
59 |
504 |
16 |
330 |
27 |
399 |
38 |
445 |
49 |
479 |
60+ |
506 |
Note: CD4 was the abbreviation of CD4+ T-cell count absolute number.
Table 6: Criteria of CD4+ T-cell absolute number at each ART time for defining INR.
Considering that the SVM model was affected by the amount and
quality of data, we simplified Table 6 and proposed criteria for
defining INR by using CD4+ T-cell count absolute number and
ART Time, as shown in Table 7.
ART time |
CD4 |
ART time |
CD4 |
6 |
200 |
30 |
410 |
9 |
250 |
36 |
440 |
12 |
300 |
42 |
460 |
18 |
350 |
48 |
480 |
24 |
380 |
60 |
500 |
Note: CD4 was the abbreviation of CD4+ T-cell count absolute number
Table 7: Simplified criteria of CD4+ T-cell absolute number at each ART time for defining INR.
Availability of other relevant features for defining INR
In our supervised learning classification model, due to the reasons
mentioned in the Features selection section, we did not use CD4+ T-cell count change number, CD4+ T-cell count growth rate, CD4/
CD8 ratio and VS time to define INR. This did not mean that we
thought these features were meaningless for defining INR. If these
data existed in actual use, on the basis of the recommended criteria
in this paper, we can regard the values of these features as adjuvant
standards to define INR. For example, the CD4/CD8 ratio less
than 1 could help define INR.
Conclusion
On the road to overcome AIDS, INR was still an important
research area. Finding the features and methods that accurately
define INR will help us understand INR more accurately and
discover the pathogenesis and interventions of INR. Through
systematic literature review, visualization analysis, and machine
learning modeling, we have discovered the consensus, features,
and supervised classification methods that could define INR. In
the future, we will collect more INR related data; introduce more
features and classification methods to obtain better ways to define
INR.
Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate
The study complied with the principles of the Declaration
of Helsinki and was approved by the Human Science Ethics
Committee of Chongqing Public Health Medical Center. The
Human Science Ethics Committee authorized the waiver of
informed consent based on the observational nature of this study,
and the ethics review approval document number: 2021-005-01-KY.
The data extracted from the electronic medical record database was
studied anonymously.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to all participants involved
in this study and the funder of the research.
Availability of Data and Material
The entire modeling process and source code could be obtained by
the corresponding author. The datasets used or analyzed during the
study were owned by Chongqing Public Health Medical Center.
Since the data includes sensitive patient data and involves some
patents under development, the data can only be shared after being
authorized by the corresponding author and the organization.
Funding
This study was supported by the Chongqing Science and Technology
Bureau Project ( cstc2019jscx-fxyd0298, cstc2020jscx-cylhX0001).
Consent for Publication
All authors have provided consent.
Competing Interests
Yong Shuai and Hemeng Peng contributed equally to this work.
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Author Info
Yong Shuai1,2*,
Hemeng Peng1,4,
Xiaodong Wang1,3 and
Xiaoqing Peng1,3
1Chongqing CEPREI Industrial Technology Research Institute Co., Ltd, Chongqing, 401332, China
2Chongqing Public Health Medical Center, Chongqing, 400036, China
3Chongqing Key Laboratory of Reliability Technologies for Smart Electronics, Chongqing, 401332, China
4Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400714, China
Citation: Shuai Y, Peng H, Wang X, Pend X (2022) A Method for the Definition of Immunological Non-Response to Antiretroviral Therapy Based on
Review Analysis and Supervised Classification Model. J Antivir Antiretrovir. S24: 005.
Received: 08-Mar-2022, Manuscript No. JAA-22-16179;
Editor assigned: 11-Mar-2022, Pre QC No. JAA-22-16179 (PQ);
Reviewed: 25-Mar-2022, QC No. JAA-22-16179;
Revised: 28-Mar-2022, Manuscript No. JAA-22-16179 (R);
Published:
04-Apr-2022
, DOI: 10.35248/1948-5964-22.14.005
Copyright: © 2022 Shuai Y, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.