Journal of Cancer Research and Immuno-Oncology
Open Access

Immunology for Tumor Suppression: Vaccines and the Impact of Cancer Vaccines on Tumor Cells

Motonobu Juliana^{* *}Correspondence: Motonobu Juliana, Department of Medicine, Sorbonne University, Paris, France, Email:

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About the Study

Immunology plays a pivotal role in understanding and combating cancer, a disease characterized by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells. Cancer vaccines, a novel and rapidly advancing field within oncology, leverage the body's immune system to target and suppress tumor cells. These vaccines either prevent cancer development (prophylactic) or treat existing cancers (therapeutic). Immunology and vaccination technology have been used to create novel possibilities for tumor suppression and increase the possibility of improved cancer treatment results.

Mechanisms of cancer vaccines

Cancer vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells. They achieve this by presenting antigens molecules expressed by cancer cells—to the immune system, prompting an adaptive immune response. The primary mechanisms involve Activation of Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs), particularly dendritic cells, which process and present these antigens to T cells.

When cancer vaccines are administered, APCs uptake the vaccine's antigens, process them, and display them on their surface bound to Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecules. This presentation is crucial for the activation of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which directly target and kill tumor cells expressing these antigens. Additionally, CD4+ helper T cells are activated to enhance and sustain the immune response by releasing cytokines that recruit and amplify other immune cells. Some vaccines also stimulate humoral immunity, leading to the production of antibodies against tumor antigens. These antibodies can flag cancer cells for destruction via mechanisms like Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity (ADCC).

Types of cancer vaccines

Cancer vaccines are categorized based on their mechanisms and components:

Preventive vaccines: These vaccines protect against viruses associated with cancer development. For instance, the HPV vaccine prevents cervical and other HPV-related cancers, while the Hepatitis B vaccine reduces the risk of liver cancer.

Therapeutic vaccines: Designed to treat existing cancers, these vaccines stimulate the immune system to target and eliminate tumor cells. Examples include Sipuleucel-T (Provenge) for prostate cancer and experimental vaccines targeting melanoma, lung cancer, and glioblastoma.

Peptide-based vaccines: These use synthetic peptides that mimic TAAs to trigger an immune response. They are particularly useful in personalized medicine, as they can be tailored to individual patients' tumor profiles.

DNA and RNA vaccines: These innovative platforms deliver genetic material encoding tumor antigens, enabling the host cells to produce the antigens and stimulate immunity. RNA vaccines, such as those developed for COVID-19, are being explored for their potential in cancer immunotherapy.

Dendritic cell vaccines: These involve isolating a patient's dendritic cells, loading them with tumor antigens in vitro, and reintroducing them into the patient to stimulate a targeted immune response.

Impact of cancer vaccines on tumor cells

Cancer vaccines represent a great approach in immunotherapy, aiming to harness the body's immune system to recognize and attack tumor cells. Unlike preventive vaccines, therapeutic cancer vaccines target existing tumors by stimulating an immune response specifically against tumor-associated antigens (TAAs).

These vaccines work by training dendritic cells and other immune components to recognize TAAs, which are expressed on tumor cells. Once the immune system is activated, cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are mobilized to target and destroy cancer cells, leaving healthy tissues largely unaffected. For instance, the FDA-approved vaccine Sipuleucel-T for prostate cancer has shown the ability to enhance survival by stimulating an immune response against prostatic acid phosphatase, a common TAA. Additionally, cancer vaccines can reduce tumor growth, limit metastasis, and, in some cases, overcome immune evasion mechanisms that tumors often develop. This includes addressing immune checkpoint pathways to prevent T-cell suppression.

Cancer vaccine development

Cancer vaccine development is a pivotal area in oncology, aiming to stimulate the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells. Unlike traditional vaccines, which prevent infectious diseases, cancer vaccines target malignancies by either preventing cancer in at-risk individuals or treating existing cancers. Recent advancements include the use of personalized vaccines, tailored to an individual’s tumor profile, and mRNA technology, which has shown promise for rapid and targeted vaccine development. Additionally, adjuvants and delivery systems, such as nanoparticles, enhance vaccine efficacy by improving immune activation. Despite significant progress, challenges remain, including tumor heterogeneity, immune evasion by cancer cells, and ensuring sustained immune responses. Ongoing research focuses on combining cancer vaccines with other treatments, like immune checkpoint inhibitors, to improve outcomes. Cancer vaccines represent a potential frontier in immunooncology, with the potential to transform cancer prevention and therapy. Continued innovation and clinical trials are crucial for their success.