Journal of Hotel and Business Management
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Job Expectations in Ex-Migrants from Central Mexico

Enrique Martinez Munoz^*, Cruz Garcia Lirios and Tirso Javier Hernandez Gracia ^*Correspondence: Enrique Martinez Munoz, Department of Engineering, Hidalgo University, Mexico city, Mexico, Email:

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Introduction

The objective of this work is to contract a model for the study of labor perceptions in entrepreneurial ex-migrants from central Mexico. From the establishment of the reliability and validity of an instrument that measured expectations of setting, demands, resources, risks, opportunities and capacities as determinants of job search.

Labor expectations, for the purposes of research, are expectations of failure or success, unfavorable or favorable, negative or positive in the face of a future job by ex- migrants who had to return to their place of origin due to the immigration policies of the government of Donald Trump [1].

In relation to migration, job expectations have been extensively studied from its economic, political and even social aspects, but little has been studied in terms of their expectations since exmigrants who return to their place of origin go through a peculiar situation as bearers of entrepreneurial values and norms, but they have also developed perceptions of risk and usefulness that indicate entrepreneurial opportunities [2].

In this situation, migratory studies focused on acculturation, poly culturally, multiculturalism, interculturality and transculturally have avoided labor expectations by focusing their interest on the groups to which the migrant belongs or wishes to belong [3-5].

Research on acculturation has highlighted the transfer of information and knowledge from the dominant cultures to migratory flows, underestimating expectations as determinants of the dispositions and commitments of migrants in the face of local market opportunities [6].

From poly culturally, studies of migratory flows have focused on diversity as a phenomenon peculiar to the dominant culture without envisioning the contributions of other cultures such as collaboration, solidarity and support.

It is in multiculturalism where the inclusion of migratory flows has been built, provided that these are circumscribed to the values and norms of the dominant culture, being observed as eccentric cultures and the risks associated with their resistance to change, or rather, their resilient or indolent identity that associates them with risks to their occupational and sexual health [7-9].

Even from inter cultureless where it is assumed that migratory flows achieve social and labor equity by having representatives drawn from their ranks; their expectations are reduced to a craft, tourist, gastronomic or recreational market by associating their cultural values to non-scientific or nonscientific fields technological.

Finally, from the transculturally where the diversity of identities in constant interrelation arises, eroding the dominant culture and highlighting the values of alternative cultures, job expectations are reduced to scenarios of emotional intelligence such as art and the organizations and institutions that spread culture [10].

Consequently, a new, more limited and local approach will make it possible to address the labor insertion of ex- migrants in the market of their place of origin, as well as the interrelationships that their social and labor entrepreneurship entails [11].

Studies of labor perceptions

The literature consulted has shown the direct, positive and significant effect between expectations of setting, demands, resources, risks, opportunities and capacities with respect to the job search.

The studies selected to be conceptualized have found temporary differences in terms of resources, establishment of immigration as a central issue on the public agenda, and justification of the political authoritarianism of the receiving country the concentration of migrants in tourist area, the majority expulsion of Mexican migrants to the United States, the adaptation of migrants to the family planning system, the establishment of differences between migrants and residents with respect to marginalization, segregation, assimilation and integration, the self -concept of the Mexican migrant towards the Spanish culture, the association between violence, depression and selfefficacy and differences between men and women regarding socialization with culture of the country that received them.

In summary, the reviewed literature warns of direct, positive and significant relationships between the variables of frame expectations, demands, resources, risks, opportunities and skills on job search, although the relationships between their indicators have not been established or observed. The relationships between these with respect to their factors or dimensions [12-27].

Modeling of labor perceptions

A measurement model includes the specification of relations to define the paths of relations that will explain the disinterest in seeking a job, or the intensification of the search.

In this way, labor perceptions are assumed as second-order latent variables that can be inferred and measured from their dimensions and indicators. Such are the cases of frame expectations, demands, resources, risks, opportunities and capabilities as determinants of job search.

Formulation: Will there be differences between the structures of the perceptual variables with respect to the structure of the relationships to be observed between their factors and indicators?

Null hypothesis: There will be significant differences between the structure of the perceptual variables and the relationships to be observed between their factors and indicators.

Alternative hypothesis: There will be no significant differences between the structure of the perceptual variables with respect to the relationships to be observed between their factors and indicators.

Materials and Methods

A first non-experimental, cross-sectional and exploratory study was carried out.

A non-probabilistic selection of 100 former migrants was made. The inclusion requirements dealt with experiences of travel stay and return in the national, regional or international labor market in order to seek job opportunities and remuneration higher than those offered by the local labor market.

The Carrion Labor Perceptions Scale (2016) was used (Table 1).

Table 1: Operationalization of labor perceptions.

Confidentiality and anonymity of the respondents were guaranteed in writing, as well as the warning that the results of the study would not negatively or positively affect their economic, political, and social or employment status. The data collected was captured in the Statistics Program for the Social Sciences (IBM-SPSS-AMOS, version 25).

Kurtosis parameter was used to establish the normal distribution, Cronbach's alpha statistic to estimate internal consistency, the KMO value for adequacy, chi square for sphericity, factor weight obtained from the exploratory factor analysis of principal components with varimax rotation. And maximum likelihood to indicate the validity of the construct, the "phi" parameter for the covariance’s, the "gamma" and "beta" statistics to estimate the dependency relationships between exogenous factors and endogenous factors, or between endogenous factors. In addition, the parameters "sigma" and "epsilon" were used for measurement errors and disturbance. Regarding the fit, the Goodness-of-Fit Indices (GFI) were used. Finally, the Mean Residual Index (RMR) was calculated for the contrast of the null hypothesis.

Normal: Kurtosis values close to unity were assumed as evidence of normal distribution since they identify the trend of responses in reference to the mean and standard deviation. In the cases of reagents with values greater than a value of 5, they were eliminated from further analysis.

Adequacy: The KMO value greater than 0.60 was assumed as evidence of adequacy of the responses to the factors.

Sphericity: The chi square value close to unity and significant was considered as evidence of sphericity of the answers in relation to the factors.

Validity: An exploratory factorial analysis of principal axes with promax rotation was performed. The factorial weight greater than 0.300 was assumed as evidence of correlation between the item and the factor. In the cases in which the values were lower than the required thresholds, or where appropriate, they were not significant, they were discarded from subsequent analyses. Regarding the explained variance greater than 20% for each factor, it was considered as a requirement for the acceptance of the null hypothesis.

Reliability: An alpha value greater than 0.60 and less than 0.90 was assumed as evidence of internal consistency. In those cases, in which the correlation between the item and the scale was less than 0.60, it was assumed to be a spurious relationship, while a value greater than 0.90 was considered a collinear relationship. Both relationships, spurious and collinear, allowed discarding items from the following analyses.

In a second non-experimental, cross-sectional and exploratory study with a non-probabilistic selection of 100 emigrants, a confirmatory factorial analysis of principal components was carried out with varimax rotation, after adequacy and sphericity with the KMO parameters and the Bartlett test.

Covariation: The "phi" value, like the alpha value, which ranged between 0.30 and 0.90, was used as evidence of an associative relationship between two factors considering the other factors. In cases where the values were less than 0.30 or greater than 0.90, they were used to guide the interpretation of results.

Structure: The "gamma" and "beta" values, as well as the "phi" values, were used as evidence of a spurious relationship, a dependency relationship, or a collinear relationship. In this way, following the threshold used, the dependency relationship model was interpreted considering values between 0.30 and 0.90.

Adjustment: The GFI value close to unity was assumed as evidence of fit of the specific relationships model in contrast to the estimated relationships model. The value lower than 0.90 was assumed as acceptance of the alternative hypothesis while the value higher than 0.90 was considered as evidence of acceptance of the null hypothesis.

Residual: The RMR value close to zero was assumed as evidence of fit of the specified dependency ratios compared to the estimated dependency ratios. This implied the acceptance of the null hypothesis and the rejection of the alternative hypothesis. However, the RMR value greater than 0.10 was assumed as evidence of rejection of the null hypothesis and acceptance of the alternative hypothesis.

Results

Table 2 shows the descriptive data of the instrument. Regarding the perception of framing, the descriptive data show a tendency of the items to the "very little related" option. The item PE5 (M=2.84; SD=0.35; C=1.08) was close to the option "little related" while the item PE1 (M=1.03; SD=0.38; C=1.02) exemplified the “very little related” option. This means that the framing of the media regarding events in the US and Mexico seems to have a lesser influence on the sample surveyed, since the perception of framing tends to concentrate on an option that indicates low credibility.

Table 2: Descriptive of the instrument.

Regarding the perception of demands, items PD1 (M=2.49; SD=0.62; C=1.05) and PD4 (M=2.95; SD=0.49; C=1.01) with lower and higher scores show the tendency of the answers towards the option "almost always". This means that the labor market is perceived as a scenario of consistent demands for the sample surveyed.

In contrast, the perception of resources, according to the PRE3 items (M=1.06; SD=0.64; C=1.09) and the PRE5 item (M=1.01; SD=0.33; C=1.05), it was close to the “almost never” option. In other words, the sample surveyed not only considers that the labor market demands more and more of them, but also considers that the resources available to them are increasingly scarce.

However, despite the fact that the relationship between demands and perceived resources is inverse, the perception of risks presents a tendency for the extreme items PRI2 (M=1.02; SD=0.63; C=1.01) and PRI5 (M=1.04; SD=0.82; C=1.09) contrary to the scarcity of resources and increased demands. The sample surveyed seems to consider that the increase in demands and the reduction in resources are insufficient to anticipate a scenario of health risks.

Precisely, the perception of opportunities complements the assumption according to which the surveyed sample ignores the consequences of the increase in demands and the decrease in resources. Items PO2 (M=2.48, SD=0.51, C=1.05) and PO5 (M=2.91, SD=0.22, C=1.05) show the tendency of the responses to the "always" option. This is so because the sample surveyed seems to anticipate a scenario in which the risks are minimal, and the opportunities are abundant.

When observing the perception of abilities, the items PC2 (M=2.48; SD=0.51; C=1.05) and PC5 (M=2.91; SD=0.22; C=1.04) they complement the scenario of risks and opportunities in contrast to the scenario of demands and resources. The surveyed sample seems to consider that "very frequently" their abilities will allow them to face the two scenarios they perceive.

Finally, regarding job search, the surveyed sample oscillates between not having a strategy to work in the government (item BE3; M=0.36; SD=0.94; C=1.05) and talking to their relatives to set up a business (item BE2; M=2.85; SD=0.62; C=1.08), which means that the scenario derived from the relationship between demands and resources would be adjusted to the inaction of job search in the government, while the scenario related to risks, opportunities and capacities would be oriented to the management of a business among their relatives.

In summary, the descriptive data of the instrument reveal two perceived scenarios that, when related to the job search, could complement each other. However, the consistency of the sample responses and their validity would open the possibility of establishing the dependency relationships between the perceived scenarios and the job search.

The adequacy analysis (KMO=6.06) and sphericity X²=3.57 (14 df) p=0.00 allowed estimation of seven factors. The first factor related to the perception of framing explained 56% of the variance and included the items PE1, PE2, PE3 and PE4 to achieve an internal consistency of 0.71 above the required threshold. The second factor allusive to the perception of demands explained 41% of the variance and was configured with the indicators PD2, PD3 and PD5, and also obtained a reliability of 0.74 greater than the minimum required.

The third factor referring to the perception of resources explained 37% of the variance, whose items were PRE1, PRE2, PRE4 and PRE5, which were consistently related to the scale (alpha=0.75). The fourth factor referred to the perception of risks explained 34% of the variance while it was configured with the items PRI1, PRI2, PRI3 and PRI5, which reached a reliability above the specified threshold (alpha=0.77). The fifth factor related to opportunities explained 27% of the variance when correlating with items PO1, PO2, PO3 and PO5, which obtained optimal internal consistency (alpha=0.76). The sixth factor involved was the perception of abilities, which explained 23% of the variance and was constructed with items PC1, PC2, PC3, PC4 and PC5, which correlated favorably with the instrument (alpha=0.79). Lastly, the seventh factor referred to the job search, which explained 20% of the variance and was configured with the indicators BE2, BE4 and NE5, as it consistently correlated with the scale (alpha=0.78).

In summary, the validity and reliability of the instrument showed seven factors consistent with the manifest variables. This assumed associative relationships between each factor. In this sense, (Table 3) shows the analysis of covariance’s between the perception of employment and job search (Φ=0.694) with respect to the other factors. Similarly, the perception of demands was associated with the perception of resources (Φ=0.762). In the case of the perception of resources, the correlation with the perception of risks (Φ=0.601) was greater with respect to the other factors. For its part, this last factor of perceived risks was positively linked to job search (Φ=0.681) in reference to the other factors. Lastly, the perception of opportunities was related to job search (Φ=0.795). These results show associative relationships between the factors involved with respect to the correlation between the other factors. From these findings it was possible to expect dependency relationships.

Table 3: Covariances between the factors.

Figure 1 shows the dependency relationships that allowed the contrast of the six hypotheses put forward.

Figure 1: Structural model.

Source: Prepared with study data

The perception of framing determined the work strategies (γ=0.57), in turn it was determined by the perception of threats (β=0.69). In other words, the surveyed sample seems to opt for the opportunities and risks disseminated in the media more than for their perceived abilities when establishing a job search strategy.

The perception of framing was also determined by the perception of opportunities (β=0.62). This means that the sample surveyed seems to trust the information available in the media before looking for a job, although it is the increased demands of the labor market and the risks associated with their skills that delineate the relationship between their skills and their employment strategies. Vacancy search.

The job search was influenced by the perception of abilities (γ=0.46), the same variable that was determined by the perception of resources (β=0.68). In other words, the study sample seems to carry out a job search based on the available job offers and according to their skills and knowledge.

The perception of skills was also determined by the perception of demands (β=0.60), suggesting job acculturation since the sample surveyed seems to show that they learn skills related to the requirements of the local market.

In short, the analyzes of dependency relationships suggest the acceptance of hypotheses 1,2,3,5 since hypothesis 4 could not be tested. The findings allowed estimating the chi square [X2=3.48 (3 df) p=0.000], the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI=0.975) and the Mean Square Residual (RMR=0.001) which contrasted the null hypothesis and whose values allowed to accept it.

Discussion

The present study has established the prediction of job search in a sample of ex- migrants. The results warn that the processing of information determined the search strategies, although the perceived capacities affected the labor abilities.

In reference to the findings of, who established correlations between the perception of inequity and group asymmetries, this research may suggest that the demands are a consequence of the relations between migrants and residents, just as the job skills are the responses of the surveyed sample in the face of these inter-group relationships.

However, migrant groups not only adapt or assimilate to the norms of a group different from them, but they also socialize their capacities. In this way, acculturation coexists with multi acculturation. In other words, the sample surveyed perceives an increase in demands that affects the increase in their skills and the intensification of their job search strategies.

However, the relationship between job search, perception of skills, perceived demands and perceived setting does not fit the two negative and positive trends of the state of knowledge. It is a process that goes through the vicious circle that involves the search for vacancies based on the increase in perceived capacities caused by the increase in risks and demands spread as barriers or, it goes through the virtuous circle of self-employment strategies, job skills, opportunities and resources framed in news of progress.

It is necessary to contrast the hypotheses of the relationships between migrant groups with a high educational level which could be closer to the positive process and migrant groups with a low educational level more affected by the negative process in reference to other resident groups such as; officials, micro entrepreneurs, merchants, farmers or transporters to clarify the specified relationships in the face of economic crisis or prosperity. Such an exercise will allow the construction of a theory that explains the supposed relationships that affect the journey and stay of migrants, as well as the return and labor reinsertion of former migrants.

In this way, the limitations of the present study consist in the fact that it does not explore the meanings around migration, crossing and return in reference to the opportunities and labor capacities of the locality. In this sense, it is possible to notice two scenarios; 1) the power of the State over citizens and 2) the influence of migrant groups on ex -migrant groups. In other words, the impact of business promotion and job creation policies would directly affect the evaluation of the authorities and employment, subsidy or unemployment insurance programs that would complement the explanatory model. In addition, the discourses of migrant groups as symbols of the imaginary of exmigrant groups.

Conclusion

The search for employment in ex-migrants:

• It has been conceptualized as an effect of migratory spaces and times, the intensive broadcasting of the labor market on television, the establishment of migratory issues in Mexico and the United States, the causal attribution of risks in newscasts, and the urban-countryside relationship; cause of threats to resident groups and social segregation; synonymous with service capabilities, resolution of increased demands and scarce resources and factor of workers' compensation.

• It has been studied by two processes; one negative in which the demands of the labor market increase the risks and these must be reduced by the skills of migrants, another positive in which the scarcity of resources must also be faced from the skills of migrants.

• It is determined by perceived capabilities as long as these are affected by perceived demands and perceived market settings.

• However, it is necessary to carry out comparative studies to establish differences between migrant and resident groups in adverse or prosperous economic situations.

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